TCE Articles

The overthrow of Bashar al-Assad’s regime in Syria marks a turning point in the history of the Middle East, a region long dominated by cycles of conflict and authoritarian rule. Rebel forces have seized Damascus, forcing Assad to flee, ending 53 years of his family’s reign.

The world is no stranger to division. From the Roman Empire's split to modern-day conflicts like Korea, Israel-Palestine, and Sudan, countless regions have been divided by politics, ideology, or colonial interference. Cyprus, too, shares this history, but the plight of the Turkish Cypriots remains uniquely misunderstood and unjustly marginalized.

For decades, Turkish Cypriots in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) have been denied recognition and subjected to embargoes, despite their peaceful governance and democratic institutions. While other divided regions have found paths to international acceptance, Turkish Cypriots remain isolated—a glaring double standard in global politics. 

This list of historical divisions aims to place Cyprus within the broader context of global fractures. By understanding similar cases worldwide, it becomes clear that Cyprus is neither unique in its division nor alone in its struggle for justice. Yet, what sets Cyprus apart is the international community's failure and refusal to recognize Turkish Cypriots' rightful place in the global family. This piece seeks to highlight these parallels and call for the same fairness and acknowledgment afforded to others across history.

1. Roman Empire (Division into Eastern and Western Empires, 285 CE)  
- Date: 285 CE  
- Cause: Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire to better govern its vast territory, creating the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) and Western Roman Empire.  
- Impact: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE, while the Byzantine Empire endured until 1453. This division influenced the religious and cultural divide between Western Europe (Catholic) and Eastern Europe (Orthodox).  

2. Great Schism of Christianity (1054 CE)  
- Date: 1054 CE  
- Cause: Long-standing theological and political disputes between the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire.  
- Impact: Christianity formally split into two branches, shaping religious, cultural, and political identities in Europe and the Mediterranean.  

3. Canada (Quebec Separatism, 1763)  
- Date: 1763  
- Cause: The Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years’ War, transferring French-controlled Canada to British rule. French-speaking Quebec became a minority under English-speaking governance.  
- Impact: Quebec resisted assimilation into English-speaking Canada, resulting in the Quebec separatist movement. Two referendums for independence (1980 and 1995) narrowly failed.  

 4. The Caribbean (Ethnic Divisions, Post-Colonial Legacy)  
- Date: 1830s onward (Emancipation Era)  
- Cause: Following the abolition of slavery, British plantations in the Caribbean imported Indian indentured laborers, creating a lasting ethnic divide between African and Indian-descended populations.  
- Impact: Multiethnic tensions continue to influence politics and society in countries like Trinidad and Guyana, where Afro-Caribbean and Indo-Caribbean populations compete for influence.  

 5. Afghanistan and Pakistan (Durand Line, 1893)  
- Date: 1893  
- Cause: The British established the Durand Line as the border between British India and Afghanistan, dividing Pashtun tribal areas. This artificial boundary ignored tribal realities and created lasting tensions.  
- Impact: The Durand Line remains a contentious border, fueling disputes between Afghanistan and Pakistan and contributing to regional instability.  

 6. Ireland and Northern Ireland (Partition, 1921)  
- Date: 1921  
- Cause: The Government of Ireland Act 1920 partitioned Ireland into Northern Ireland (remaining part of the UK) and the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland). Centuries of British policies exacerbated Protestant-Catholic tensions.  
- Impact: Partition led to "The Troubles" (1969-1998), decades of sectarian violence. The Good Friday Agreement (1998) brought peace but left Northern Ireland’s future contentious, particularly post-Brexit.  

 7. Myanmar (Rohingya Crisis, Legacy of British Rule)  
- Date: 1824–1948 (British Rule)  
- Cause: The British conquest of Burma created ethnic hierarchies that favored minorities like the Karen and Kachin over others, sowing deep divisions.  
- Impact: Post-independence, these divisions contributed to the systemic persecution of the Rohingya Muslim minority, who face genocide-level violence and statelessness in Myanmar.  

 8. India and Pakistan (Partition, 1947)  
- Date: 1947  
- Cause: British withdrawal from India, coupled with escalating tensions between Hindus and Muslims, led to the partition into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan.  
- Impact: The partition caused one of the largest migrations in history, with over 10 million displaced and up to 2 million deaths. Kashmir remains a disputed region, leading to multiple wars.  

 9. Israel and Palestine (Partition Plan, 1948)  
- Date: 1948  
- Cause: The British Mandate over Palestine ended, and the UN proposed a partition plan to create Jewish and Arab states. Jewish leaders declared Israel; Arab states rejected the plan, resulting in war.  
- Impact: Israel’s creation displaced over 700,000 Palestinians. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict persists, with disputes over borders, refugees, and Jerusalem.  

 10. China and Taiwan (Separation, 1949)  
- Date: 1949  
- Cause: The Chinese Civil War ended with the communist victory on the mainland. The defeated Kuomintang fled to Taiwan, establishing the Republic of China.  
- Impact: Taiwan remains self-governing but is claimed by China, creating ongoing geopolitical tensions.  

 11. Germany (Division into East and West Germany, 1949)  
- Date: 1949  
- Cause: Post-World War II occupation zones by Allied powers (US, UK, USSR, and France) led to the establishment of communist East Germany (GDR) and democratic West Germany (FRG).  
- Impact: The division symbolized the Cold War. The Berlin Wall, erected in 1961, physically split Berlin until its fall in 1989. Germany reunified in 1990, but disparities between east and west linger.  

 12. Vietnam (Partition into North and South Vietnam, 1954)  
- Date: 1954  
- Cause: The Geneva Accords ended French colonial rule in Vietnam, splitting the country into communist North Vietnam and anti-communist South Vietnam.  
- Impact: The division escalated into the Vietnam War (1955-1975). North Vietnam ultimately defeated the south, uniting the country under communist rule.  

 13. Malaysia and Singapore (Separation, 1965)  
- Date: 1965  
- Cause: British colonial rule grouped diverse ethnic communities in Malaya and Singapore. Singapore joined Malaysia in 1963 but was expelled in 1965 due to ideological and ethnic differences.  
- Impact: Singapore thrives as an independent city-state, while Malaysia grapples with balancing its multiethnic identity.  

 14. Nigeria and Biafra (Civil War, 1967-1970)  
- Date: 1967  
- Cause: British colonial policies grouped Nigeria’s diverse ethnic groups into a single state. Economic and ethnic disparities led to Biafra’s attempted secession.  
- Impact: The war resulted in over 1 million deaths. While Nigeria remains unified, ethnic and regional tensions persist.  

 15. Cyprus (Division of Cyprus, 1974)  
- Date: 1974  
- Cause: Turkish intervention under the Treaty of Guarantee followed Greek Cypriot attempts to achieve enosis (union with Greece) and ethnic cleansing campaigns against Turkish Cypriots.  
- Impact: Cyprus remains divided into the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) and the Greek-controlled Republic of Cyprus.  

 16. Zimbabwe (Land and Ethnic Divisions, Post-Colonial Legacy)  
- Date: Ongoing since 1980  
- Cause: Under British rule (Southern Rhodesia), white settlers seized vast tracts of land, marginalizing Black Africans.  
- Impact: Land reforms post-independence led to economic collapse and deepened racial tensions.  

 17. Somalia and Somaliland (Separation, 1991)  
- Date: 1991  
- Cause: Somaliland declared independence following the collapse of Somalia’s central government. Colonial histories under Britain (Somaliland) and Italy (Somalia) created distinct political identities.  
- Impact: Somaliland functions as a de facto independent state but lacks international recognition.  

 18. Hong Kong and China (Handover, 1997)  
- Date: 1997  
- Cause: British rule ended, returning Hong Kong to China under a "one country, two systems" framework.  
- Impact: China’s increasing encroachment on Hong Kong’s freedoms has led to mass protests, arrests, and growing tensions with the West.  

 19. Sudan and South Sudan (Separation, 2011)  
- Date: 2011  
- Cause: Decades of civil war between Sudan’s Arab-Muslim north and African-Christian south.  
- Impact: South Sudan became the world’s newest nation, but both countries suffer from ongoing conflict, poverty, and political instability.  

 20. Papua New Guinea and Bougainville (Referendum, 2019)  
- Date: 2019  
- Cause: Longstanding grievances over autonomy and resource control in Bougainville led to a referendum where over 97% voted for independence.  
- Impact: Negotiations for Bougainville’s independence are ongoing.  

 TCE Conclusion: A History of Fractures

This comprehensive list of divisions demonstrates humanity’s repeated struggles with governance, identity, and autonomy. Turkish Cypriots’ struggle in the TRNC is far from an anomaly; it reflects a broader tapestry of global divisions requiring justice and reconciliation.  

References  
1. Historical studies on global divisions and their impacts.  
2. Analyses of colonial legacies and ideological splits.  
3. Academic discussions of unrecognized states and ongoing conflicts.  

The Greek Cypriot administration’s recent push for NATO membership, devised with U.S. collaboration, has ignited fierce debate in the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond. While marketed as a pathway to security and stability, this initiative raises troubling questions about its real intent and the potential consequences for regional peace.

The announcement of Donald Trump’s return to the White House has reignited debates about U.S.-Türkiye relations. Ankara, with its strategic geopolitical role and critical regional ambitions, has expressed a blend of skepticism and cautious optimism about the prospects of collaboration under Trump’s new administration. While there are glimmers of hope for renewed dialogue and economic ties, Türkiye’s leadership remains wary of Washington’s approach to key regional issues.